Stem Cells: The Process and Ethics

INTRODUCTION
"Save the Stem Cells,"[1] cries Chris Carter and his associates of the Save the Stem cell campaign, “Because of their ability to regenerate a patient's immune system when it has been damaged by disease or destroyed by therapies such as chemotherapy or radiation.”[2] Carter is one of a number of scientists that are deeply interested in this subject due to possible implications that stem cells have as being a suitable resource for experimentation to further the ease of suffering humanity.
Stem cells have had a rocky past within the Christian community due to the nature of where and how they are harvested for research. The use of stem cells has been a hotly debated issue between politicians, Christians and scientists because of the concern for the cells that come from human embryos and the temptation to use them for the purpose of cloning humans. Carter’s view, is just one of many views that will be looked at within this paper in an attempt to come to a final resting place ethically concerning the use of embryonic stem cells in particular.
To properly understand all of the ethical and political concerns involved with stem cells, one must understand what they are, where they come from and how they are used. To begin with, there are three different types of stem cells that are used, human embryonic, adult and germ. Veigas explains the growth process of stem cells and the stages of cells that takes place,
“A fertilized human egg is programmed to divide over an over again until, after one to five days, it forms a round ball of cells called a blastocyst. A blastocyst under a microscope basically looks like a soap bubble filled with liquid, with a bunch of egg-shaped smaller cells gathered into one corner of the bubble. These smaller cells are the embryonic stem cells. When the blastocyst containing the embryonic stem cells is approximately two days old, the stem cells are totipotent. This means that they have the potential of forming an entire human being. When the blastocyst is about four days old, the stem cells within it are said to be plurpotent. This means that they can now divide and turn into any type of cell with the body. At eight days old, the cells have become more specialized and are now called multipotent. At this stage they begin to form any of the numerous types of cells, such as nerve or muscle cells, that make up a person. Eventually, multipotent stem cells will begin to clump together to form actual organs. For example heart muscle cells with turn into a heart and cartilage cells will begin to form the first stages of a skeleton.”[3]


Here, Jennifer Viegas relates the most debated are the embryonic stem cells, ES for short. ES cells are those cells that have been taken from a fertilized egg before they have become differentiated. Differentiation comes after the egg separates itself into more than one cell within the first few days of fertilization. Differentiation is also when the cells begin the process of determining what they will become. Viegas goes on to explain that,
“Stem cells are unspecialized cells. They do not carry out specific functions, as do other cells. Most stem cells are like notebooks filled with empty pages. Just as a person can create a book by writing on blank pieces of paper, scientists hope to turn blank stem cells into whatever kind of cells they need.”[4] Thus the reason for the scientific community wanting to harvest the cells prior to the point of differentiation because it allows the scientist to program the cell to become what he or she desires it to be, hence the debate. Stem cells do not have to come from a fertilized egg, they can also come from other types of cells which come from other places such as cord blood from fully developed humans or adults. The types of cells which are obtained from fully developed humans are known as adult stem cells. The hope is that with stem cells, “Scientists hope that in the future, with the help of stem cells, humans will be able to repair worn-out parts of the body as easily as they now repair a damaged part of a car or computer.”[5] It is important to note that any type of stem cell can be used in this fashion and not only those which come from humans; animal stem cells can be also used for research. However, the implications for humans as stated earlier by Veigas, show potential for the selling of human body parts, thus the reason for debate. One can see that stem cell research is a sticky issue ethically and a good reason for concern which will be discussed later.

THE HISTORY OF STEM CELLS
The history of this science reaches back a few years into the early 60’s but the most recent advances in the field have resulted in great debate surrounding the use of hES or human embryonic stem cells especially as it relates to the cloning of a being. In February of 1997, the first clone of an animal was revealed to the scientific community. The animal that was cloned was named Dolly, a sheep. This was a breakthrough in reproductive technology but a shock to the rest of the world due to the ethical questions that were raised. Even though cloning is another hot genetic issue, it is not the purpose of this paper. Stem cell technology has been a process of geneticists looking for a way to ease human suffering, as stated before, as well as finding out what other possibilities may lay within the science and what it could be used for. For scientists the possibilities are endless without the intervention of ethics. Looking back into the 60’s, scientists found that if they used stem cells and injected them into certain parts of the body that had been damaged by disease, that the stem cells would replicate and replace the damaged cells and repair the organ or blood that was damaged. This type of technology today is called stem cell therapy. One good example of this occurred in the early 1960’s with a patient with a “severe combined immunodeficiency disorder in 1968”[6] This showed scientists the huge potential that stem cells had and began the in-depth research that continues in various parts of the world to this day.
Cell research continued throughout the 60’s as scientists worked on improving the in vitro fertilization of eggs. During the 1980’s this process was greatly improved as one of the first babies was conceived in 1981. As time progressed scientists began to realize that through animal research that mice could produce several kinds of cells. By the year 1981, embryonic stem cells were taken from mice and used to find if they could be used to reproduce any other type of cell. “Scientists put these cells through a number of tests to see if they could produce the three basic types of cells found in mammals. The scientists were able to clone the cells, producing copies and were able to turn them into other types of cells.”[7]
To date, some nations have allowed human embryonic stem cells to be used in research and others have not. The United States is one of those nations that put a hold on federal funding in the research of human embryonic stem cells. On the other hand, the United Kingdom has allowed the research to continue. Only time will tell of their findings.
In 1998, the idea of using stem cell research came to a head when a couple of scientists devised a plan to use stem cells in conjunction with cloning to come up with more therapeutic ways to use the cells. They found that the “combining of cloning and stem cell technologies might make it possible to generate replacement tissues with significant therapeutic value.”[8] This idea was revolutionary and made a division within the scientific community due to its ethical concerns related to the concept of replacement parts for humans.
In short, the history of stem cell research has exploded within the last ten years and will be a topic of debate for years to come due to bringing up more questions than answers as it relates to ethics.
THE PRACTICES OF STEM CELL RESEARCH
In practice, one might question how these cells are actually obtained. As alluded to earlier, many are harvested from in vitro, test tube, forms of fertilization. Others can be gained from terminated pregnancies, abortions, once the fetus or baby is removed. Once these cells are removed they can be cultivated to be stored for the future. These types of cells that come from a single embryo are known as cell lines. Another method of obtaining stem cells is to clone the embryo to produce the stem cells that could be harvested. In this practice another cloned embryo is a result and is used for scientific research. Using the same type of concept is yet another way to obtain stem cells by the use of a human egg. When a human egg is used and injected with another cell from another part of the body, it will begin to reproduce another embryo. Patrick Dickson puts it this way;
“If we take one of your skin cells and fuse it with an unfertilized human egg, the chemical bath inside a human egg activates all the silenced genes, and the combined cell becomes so totipotent that it starts to make a new human being. What then if we could find a way to reactivate just a few silenced genes, and perhaps at the same time silence some of the others? Could we find a chemical that would mimic what happens in the embryo, with the power to transform cells from one type into another? Yes we can. Jonathan Slack and others have done just that. What was considered impossible five years ago is already history. Could we take adult cells and force them back into a more general, undetermined embryonic state? Yes we can. It is now possible to create cells with a wide range of plasticity, all from adult tissue. The secret is to get the right gene activators into the nucleus, not so hard as we thought.”[9]
One can see that the potential for this type of science is huge. The impact that embryonic and adult stem cell research within the medical community relating to the human health of the world can revolutionize medicine as it is known today. Despite all of the great advances, however, there are still ethical questions that need to be answered which will be discussed later.
Another method of extracting adult stem cells comes from the marrow of life itself from adults. That is, it can be obtained by the bone marrow within an adult’s bones. These cells are found within the marrow which produces white blood cells along with red blood cells. There are many other places within the human body that contains these cells that researchers are clamoring to gain. “These places include the brain, skeletal muscles, liver, skin, digestive tract and pancreas, which is the organ that produces insulin.”[10] Stem cells from the pancreas can be of benefit especially to those who have diabetes. These cells can be used in the treatment of diabetes for a possible cure.
The problem with using adult stem cells is that they are harder to replicate. Adult stem cells, unlike embryonic stem cells, have to be matured into a copy. This adds a step in the process and takes more time to multiply the cell and is a more complicated process than the use of embryonic stem cells. One advantage to the adult stem cells, however, is that they are capable of producing more cells different from what that they were taken from. This can be of benefit when the scientist wants to make a new set of cells to form another part of the
body. The advantage of adult stem cells is that they are less controversial than that of the embryonic stem cells which come from human embryos. The disadvantage is that they are difficult to find within the human body and are difficult to copy, unlike the embryonic stem cells. Research continues within both of the methods discussed, the use of embryonic and adult stem cells.
ES cells are cultivated after being obtained in a solution that contains other nutrients called fibroblasts that keep the stem cells in a state prior to being differentiated so they can multiply indefinitely.[11] The problem for scientists has been that they have only been able to cultivate very few of these stem cells effectively.
One question that comes to mind throughout this process of harvesting embryonic stem cells is if the cells are considered to be alive or dead when they are obtained. Scientifically speaking in ninth grade biology class, students are taught that when a cell divides, it is called life. Therefore, it would be safe to logically conclude that stem cells are alive when they are harvested. However, in that same class students are also taught Darwin’s theory of evolution which contends that all organisms are in a process of evolving to a higher state. This would bring to the issue of harvesting stem cells the concept that one would be aiding in the evolutionary process and that the manipulation of these cells would not be changing the status of a cell’s life rather it would be aiding it to achieve
the next higher level in the chain. Obviously, this brings into the scenario the differences of opinions between those who are creationists and those who are evolutionists which brings up another contention for controversy. Are humans mere animals? If embryonic stem cells are seen in this light, then there would be no problems ethically, seeing that they are just cells and contain no human life and can be manipulated to the whims of the researcher. There is no question about the cell being alive. The issue then is if the cell is at a point to which it could be considered a baby, hence another cause for debate
Another type of stem cell is the germ cell. Germ cells are cells that are taken from sperm or eggs that are the essence of what makes up an embryo. They are usually obtained from a human fetus, or baby, prior to birth usually between the five to ten week old stage of the baby, or fetus.[12] Here again, questions can be raised about the life and death issue of the fetus or baby. Moral and ethical concerns will be spoken of later.
To summarize the three types of stem cells discussed; adult stem cells, germ cells and human embryonic stem cells, human embryonic stem cells are the least difficult to harvest and are the most desirable to perform research on. This is the reason why these cells have been and are the target for researchers. As a result of the ethical issues, politicians and theologians today due to their ethical, moral, political and scientific implications also target human embryonic stem cells. Of the three, hES cells have been the most controversial throughout the
United States and the world. The harvesting of these cells is a tedious process that takes time and patience on the part of researchers as well as problems for ethicists worldwide as well.
For practical reasons, it is virtually impossible to communicate in written form the various concepts and foundations of molecular biology surrounding the development of a human embryo within the confines of this paper. Human embryonic stem cells, however, can be understood as the basis of the beginnings of a human life. It is important for all to understand the complexity of issues that surround the science of stem cells.

REACTIONS TO STEM CELL RESEARCH
One of the issues that is difficult to grasp is the difference between hES cells and other cells within the human body. To be honest, one must be willing to ask the question about the difference between a cell that is self renewing such as a skin cell and an embryonic stem cell that is undifferentiated. Both cells are capable of becoming any type of cell before differentiation occurs. Many types of adult cells are discarded on a daily basis by moral, logical thinking people everyday. Blood and organ donations are just one example of the giving up of cells in order to ease the burden of others who are in need of them. Logically thinking, without the interruption of life at conception, any of these cells can be used for the purpose of stem cell research. The issue that drives this method of
thinking into a tailspin is the concept that life begins at conception. Humber says that,
“In the field of regenerative medicine, embryonic stem cell research holds far-reaching promise in alleviating and preventing an array of debilitating diseases and conditions. Yet the biggest ethical stumbling block continues to be conflicting beliefs about the moral status of the human embryo.”[13]

It is this dilemma of the moral status of the human embryo, that has been the basis for concern and rightly so. This debate has stalled the process for researchers, especially in the United States from, continuing in the research of human embryonic stem cells.
Moral concerns of a nation’s people propel governments into juxtaposition when it comes to dealing with new technologies. According to Barbour,
“Governments have three broad functions in relation to technology; they provide funds for research and development cooperate with industry to encourage the growth and diffusion of technology and regulate technology in the interests of health, safety and environmental protection.”[14]

Governments are then tasked with overseeing not only the financial needs of technology but also being sensitive to moral concerns as well. For government leaders it then becomes an issue of whose health is at risk. The question turns toward the fetus’s or babies rights when it comes to health and safety. For the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, (NBAC), the question becomes a question of moral respect in that does a human embryo have a right to moral respect? For Françoise Baylis, it is not an easy answer to come up with. He
contends that the NBAC cannot settle the dispute between the differing opinions of moral rights.[15] He goes on by saying that, “it is unlikely that, by sheer force of argument, those with particularly strong beliefs on either side will be persuaded to change their opinions.”[16] If the government cannot make up its own mind about how to proceed with the issue, it means that conflict is bound to occur within the legal and judicial system also. “Courts may be called on to resolve conflicts between the wishes of researchers, parents, and the subjects”[17] as it relates to human stem cell experimentation. The line between when a cell is considered alive becomes fuzzy because of the question of which stage should a cell be considered a live moral being?
For many like Michael West, stem cells are not yet alive until they have become implanted within the uterus despite being differentiated. West feels that it is ethical for researcher to use human embryonic stem cells for experimentation.
“The fertilization of the egg cell by a sperm leads to a single cell called the zygote. From this first cell, multiple rounds of cell division over the first week result in a microscopic ball of cells with very unusual properties. This early embryo, called the preimplantation embryo, has not implanted in the uterus to begin a pregnancy. At the blastocyst stage of the preimplantation embryo, no body cells ova any type have formed. Those who argue that the preimplantation embryo is a person are left with the logical absurdity of ascribing to the blasocyst personhood when we know scientifically speaking, that no individual exists (i.e. the blastocyst may still form identical twins).”[18]

In this view, a cell is a cell is a cell and it has no rights to life due to it’s not being attached to the uterus and not having any type of resemblance to a human being in form. Since forty percent, according to West, of all eggs fail to attach themselves to the uterus and pass out of a woman’s system, the cells are discarded naturally. This utilitarian thought, supplies the justification for using preimplantation eggs to be used for experimentation due to the chance of failure. In this case the means justify the ends.
In contrast, the Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity (CBHD), calls this type of science invalid.
“Some embryology textbooks now openly refer to the term pre-embryo as scientifically invalid and inaccurate term which has been discarded and others which one used the term has quietly dropped it from new editions. Both Human Embryo Research Panel and the National Bioethics Advisory Commission have also rejected the term , describing the human embryo from its earliest stages as a living organism and a developing form of human life.”[19]

For the CBHD, it is a scientific myth that human life begins only after implantation to the wall of the uterus. They propose that other means of stem cell research should be investigated instead of human embryonic stem cells. They prefer the use of stem cells that come from cord blood or from the bone marrow of adult stem cells. It could be said that the CBHD is more deontological as opposed to the utilitarian view in their approach to this science as it relates to the human embryonic stem cells being alive and having value which the author of this paper would agree.
One could take the thoughts of the CBHD a step further and look to the evidence of the human genome. A human genome is one of the basic building blocks of human life also known as genes within the DNA makeup of human beings. There are “approximately thirty thousand genes found within human DNA.”[20] If a cell contains genetic DNA material of a human being, then that cell could be considered having human characteristics.
Stem cells having a human genome therefore should not be used according to Shannon. “Human embryonic stem cell research should not be conducted in full awareness that the research material is derived from a living human blastocyst and that in fact we are using this human tissue as a means to an end: improved health care and possible cures.”[21]
The concept of using the preimplantation stage of a human embryo has the potential for confusion if not properly understood. Just because an embryo has not yet attached itself to the wall of the uterus and been differentiated does not mean that it does not possess unique qualities within the human reproductive cycle. The cells which are in the preimplantation stage still have genetic material common to the human genome. They are common within the human system of genetics yet they are still unique because they will become fully developed human being provided that there is no outside intervention. “Such individuality is also philosophical in that this being is a single being with the potential to become a moral agent, and individual responsible for his or her own acts.”[22]

ETHICAL CONCERNS
Obviously, there are quite a number of opinions when it comes to the scientific research in the area of human embryonic stem cells. These variances in the understanding of what the status of the embryo is directly relates to the moral and ethical belief system of the one who is doing the research. These systems of beliefs vary from utilitarianism and relativism to that of virtue theory or deontological. The process by which one chooses to follow can be a big influence upon the act of the researcher. What it boils down to is a decision in moral choices one has in approaching science in relation to when and where life begins for human beings. Due to these variances in beliefs, there are many ethical and religious problems associated with this research as it will now be discussed.
“Pope John Paul II gave another perspective on this debate in an address to President Bush on July 23, 2001, during his papal visit. The pope rearticulated his position on the use of embryos by saying: “Experience is already showing how a tragic coarsening of consciences accompanies the assault on innocent human life in the womb, leading to accommodation feticide, and most recently, proposals for the creation for research purposes of human embryos, destined to be destroyed in the process”[23] Clearly the pontiff was in total disagreement with the decisions being made about human embryonic stem cell research which set the stage for the Catholic Church.

As alluded to earlier in this paper, problems arise when these hES cells are considered nothing more than cells that have no human value. When a cell is fertilized, according the Catholic church, from that point forward the cell is no longer just a cell but a human being. It would be logical to conclude then that life begins at conception. However, one must also consider the scientific understanding that cells that are not being used as a part of procreation are not seen as having value of human life such as skin cells. These cells then are more justifiably able to be discarded. hES cells are more than just skin cells, they are cells that have been given a chance at becoming a human being through the process of procreation.
The next problem that arises is what to do with the hES cells that have already been harvested and are stored for research purposes. If one sees the hES cells as having human value, then they should be treated humanely and with respect. This also gives rise to the issue of how to treat them humanely. Since they are human beings in view of imagio dei, then they cannot be destroyed nor can they be used for research purposes. These hES cells can also not be used for implantation purposes due to the Christian ethical stance that it could be considered adultery to do so.
Other ethical problems come when human embryonic stem cells are used to replicate themselves. Once this has been done there are more cells that have human value than could possibly be discarded. Whatever the stance one takes, he or she must educate themselves on the issues before making a decision.
For several church denominations, the issue of cloning and stem cell research as it relates to human embryonic stem cell research has been a hot topic. Several of these denominations have issued statements that are relevant to this bioscience.
The United Methodists in May of 1997 stated that,
“As United Methodists, our reflections on these issues emerge from our faith. When we think about cloning, we remember that creation has its origin, value and destiny in God, that humans are stewards of creation, and that technology has brought both great benefit and harm to creation. As people of faith, we believe that our identity as humans is more than our genetic inheritance, our social environment, or the sum of the two. We are created by God and have been redeemed by Jesus Christ. In light of these theological claims and other questions, fears and expectations, we recognize that our present human knowledge on this issue is incomplete and finite. It is important that the limits of human knowledge be considered as policy is made. As Christians, we affirm that all human beings, regardless of the method of reproduction, are children of God and bear the Image of God.”[24]

This statement shows clearly that they believe that life begins at conception just as the Catholic church does. The United Methodists see the human embryo as being one that already possesses the individuality of a human being as related to earlier.
Others like the United Church of Christ tend to disagree seeing that they feel that the embryo before 14 days old is not yet defined as being a human life although retaining value and should be respected. Past the point of implantation, they consider it a human life and should not be tampered with. In their statement in 1971 determined that,
“We on the United Church of Christ Committee on Genetics do not object categorically to human pre-embryo research, including research that produces and studies cloned human pre-embryos through the 14th day of fetal development, provided the research is well justified in terms of its objectives, the research protocols show proper respect for the pre-embryos, and that they not be implanted.”[25]

Since that time, the United Church of Christ has not made very much progress in terms of making a more distinctive decision to human embryonic stem cell research. Most of all they urge public discussion of the issue and that any decisions made by government pertaining to federal guidelines for research be brought before religious review boards to help make decisions.
It is highly important for the scientific community to have some set of guidelines so that order can be maintained with respect to humans. Clearly not everyone respects the Christian conservative stance on the stem cell research issue however, if there are no guidelines, anything can be a result. Where there is a lack standards, chaos can result. “Moral dilemmas produced by these procedures will only become more sophisticated and complicated. The uses of each specific technology must be carefully weighed, and cannot be exempt from moral scrutiny.”[26]
Ethically and morally speaking there is no doubt that human embryonic stem cells are a topic that will be hotly debated in the future by religious leaders, researchers and politicians alike. It could be said that human embryonic stem cells and cloning have the potential of becoming another dividing issue similar to the abortion issue that has been problematic over the last ten years. Time will tell.
Much could be said for the reactions that religious leaders and governments have had about stem cells due to the abundance of ink that has been spilled on the subject.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study of stem cell research is a very interesting and fascinating study. The moral and ethical problems that are related to the subject are of great concern.
For humanity, it could be said that the technology to genetically modify organisms has grown exponentially in the last five years and will do the same in the future as well. Given the data that has been written within these few pages it is quite clear that Christians are in the forefront of this argument for human life beginning at conception. For many, such as the United Methodists the embryo represents the future of an individual created by God which is unique possessing qualities that are the mirror image of God. It is imperative then that any embryo should be treated as a human being regardless of the means by which it was conceived.
Yes, there are circumstances that already exist where the human embryo has already been harvested for the purpose of genetic research and are in need of resolution. This is the problem with human embryonic stem cell research. What should the researchers do with the left over cells? Should they be discarded? Should they be frozen for years? There is no way of humanely deal with them once they are created. Despite the cumbersome process that it takes to obtain adult human stem cells, they should be used for the purpose of genetic research with obvious guidelines. These guidelines must include the understanding that they must not be used for the purpose of creating a human undifferentiated, preimplantation type of embryonic stem cell for the purpose of mutation.
It is clear that this science is here to stay and Christians must be aware of the science that is taking place and be ready to give educated scientific alternatives. The harvesting of human embryonic stem cells in this author’s opinion is a Pandora’s Box waiting with a myriad of problems as a result of careless ethical positions. One must be educated on the issues that surround stem cells and not shy away from the science that has such great possibilities.
Stem cell science is definitely in its beginning stages. This research definitely has the potential of relieving the aches and pains of a hurting humanity and should be considered a viable resource for the future. Christians have the responsibility to educate themselves about the issue of human embryonic stem cell research and be able to stand in the gap for those who cannot stand for themselves yet.



Works Cited
Carter Chris, Save the Stem Cells, 12 November, 2001[online] accessed: 30 April 2005. available at
http://www.mult-sclerosis.org/news/Nov2001/SavetheStemCellsCampaign.html

Deem Rich, Stem Cell Research/Cloning: Status and Ethics. 4 October 04 [Online] accessed 30 April 2005. available at http://www.godandscience.org/slideshow/stem008.html

Barbour Ian, Ethics in an age of Technology. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1991.

Cole-Turner Ronald etal., Human Cloning Religious Responses. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1997.

Dickson Patrick, The Future of Stem Cell Research: Rapid Progress. [online] accessed 30 April 2005. available at http://www.globalchange.com/stemcells2.htm

Espejo Roman etal., Human Embryo Experimentation. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002.

Humber James etal., Biomedical Ethics Reviews: Stem Cell Research. Totowa, NJ:
Humana Press, 2004.

Maienschein Jane, Whose View of Life?. Cambridge, MA: London England, 2003.

Naff Clay etal., Gene Therapy. Farmington Hills, MI: 2005.

Rae Scott, Moral Choices. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing, 2000.

Siedler Maurya etal., The Ethics of Genetic Engineering. Farmington Hills, MI: 2005.

Shannon Thomas etal., The New Genetic Medicine, Theological and Ethical Reflections. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003.

Ward Christopher, How are Stem Cells Harvested and Grown?. University of Birmingham 21 Feb 2003, [online] accessed 1 May 1, 2005. available at http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/Feb2003/1045866973.Cb.r.html

Viegas Jennifer, Stem Cell Research. New York, NY: Rosen Publishing Group, 2003.
[1]Chris Carter, Save the Stem Cells, 12 November, 2001[online] accessed: 30 April 2005 available at http://www.mult-sclerosis.org/news/Nov2001/SavetheStemCellsCampaign.html
[2]Ibid.
[3]Jennifer Viegas, Stem Cell Research, (New York, NY: Rosen Publishing Group, 2003), 21f.
[4]Ibid, 19.
[5]Ibid, 18f.
[6]Rich Deem, Stem Cell Research/Cloning: Status and Ethics, 4 October 04 [Online] accessed 30 April 2005 available at http://www.godandscience.org/slideshow/stem008.html
[7]Jennifer Viegas, Stem Cell Research, 42ff.
[8]Jane Maienschein, Whose View of Life?, (Cambridge, MA: London England, 2003), 250.
[9]Patrick Dickson, The Future of Stem Cell Research: Rapid Progress, [online] accessed 30 April 2005 available at http://www.globalchange.com/stemcells2.htm
[10]Jennifer Viegas, Stem Cell Research, 34f.
[11]Christopher Ward, How are Stem Cells Harvested and Grown?, University of Birmingham 21 Feb 2003, [online] accessed 1 May 1, 2005 available at http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/Feb2003/1045866973.Cb.r.html
[12]Jennifer Viegas, Stem Cell Research, 27.
[13]James Humber etal., Biomedical Ethics Reviews: Stem Cell Research, (Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2004), 41.
[14]Ian Barbour, Ethics in an age of Technology, (San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1991), 213.
[15]Suzanne Holland etal., The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 52.
[16]Ibid.
[17]Clay Naff etal., Gene Therapy, (Farmington Hills, MI: 2005), 179.
[18]Maurya Siedler etal., The Ethics of Genetic Engineering, (Farmington Hills, MI: 2005), 70f.
[19]Roman Espejo etal., Human Embryo Experimentation, (San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2002), 49.
[20]Jennifer Viegas, Stem Cell Research,11.
[21]Thomas Shannon etal., The New Genetic Medicine, Theological and Ethical Reflections, (Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 147.
[22]Ibid, 128.
[23]Ibid, 143.
[24]Ronald Cole-Turner etal., Human Cloning Religious Responses, (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1997), 143f.
[25]Ibid, 150.
[26]Scott Rae, Moral Choices, (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000), 179.